presidents who used military force without first going to Congress for a declaration of war or a new AUMF. Name, date(s), action. No spin. Harry S. Truman 1950 — Entered the Korean War under UN authority, no congressional authorization. Dwight D. Eisenhower 1958 — Deployed U.S. troops to Lebanon (Operation Blue Bat), no Congress vote. John F. Kennedy 1961 — Bay of Pigs invasion (Cuba), covert military action, no Congress. 1962 — Cuban Missile Crisis naval blockade (“quarantine”), no Congress. Lyndon B. Johnson 1964–1965 — Major Vietnam War escalation under Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (not a declaration of war). Richard Nixon 1969–1973 — Cambodia and Laos bombings, expanded Vietnam War, no new authorization. Gerald Ford 1975 — Mayaguez incident (Cambodia), military rescue operation, no Congress. Ronald Reagan 1983 — Invasion of Grenada, no prior congressional approval. 1986 — Airstrikes on Libya, no Congress authorization. George H. W. Bush 1989 — Invasion of Panama, no declaration of war (authorization came after). Bill Clinton 1995 — Bosnia air campaign, NATO action, no Congress vote. 1998 — Operation Desert Fox (Iraq airstrikes), no Congress. 1999 — Kosovo bombing campaign, no Congress authorization. George W. Bush 2001–ongoing — Global military actions under 2001 AUMF far beyond original scope (no new authorizations for expansions). Barack Obama 2011 — Libya air war, no congressional authorization. 2014–2016 — ISIS strikes in Syria, relied on 2001 AUMF. Donald Trump 2017 — Syria missile strikes, no Congress authorization. 2020 — Iranian General Soleimani strike, no Congress approval. Joe Biden 2021–2024 — Airstrikes in Syria, Iraq, Yemen, relied on Article II / prior AUMFs. Bottom line (no opinion, just history) • Congress has not declared war since 1941 What are your thoughts • Presidents have bypassed Congress for military action for ~75 years